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Figure 1. Bifidobacterium and its controversial role in the response to anticancer immunochemotherapy. Bifidobacterium spp. have been associated with response to immunochemotherapy through stimulation and activation of effector T lymphocytes and dendritic cells. On the other hand, Bifidobacterium spp. have been associated with induction of Treg cells, stimulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and general immunosuppressive effects (also mediated by short-chain fatty acids – SCFAs). Furthermore, the ability of Bifidobacterium to produce lactate suggests a hypothetical link with the “Warburg effect”, known to promote tumor growth, thus potentially liming the effect of immunochemotherapy. The figure was partly generated using Servier Medical Art, provided by Servier, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 unported license and images from Flaticon resources.