REFERENCES
1. Spencer MR, Garnett MF, Miniño AM. Drug overdose deaths in the United States, 2002-2022. NCHS Data Brief No. 491, March 2024. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db491.htm. [Last accessed on 11 Mar 2025].
2. Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: results from the 2022 national survey on drug use and health. Available from: https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt42731/2022-nsduh-nnr.pdf. [Last accessed on 11 Mar 2025].
4. Derefinko KJ, Brown R, Danzo A, et al. Addiction medicine training fellowships in north america: a recent assessment of progress and needs. J Addict Med. 2020;14:e103-9.
5. Grucza RA, Sher KJ, Kerr WC, et al. Trends in adult alcohol use and binge drinking in the early 21st-century United States: a meta-analysis of 6 national survey series. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2018;42:1939-50.
6. Ray LA, Grodin EN, Leggio L, et al. The future of translational research on alcohol use disorder. Addict Biol. 2021;26:e12903.
8. Tanabe J, Regner M, Sakai J, Martinez D, Gowin J. Neuroimaging reward, craving, learning, and cognitive control in substance use disorders: review and implications for treatment. Br J Radiol. 2019;92:20180942.
9. Hillmer AT, Mason GF, Fucito LM, O’Malley SS, Cosgrove KP. How imaging glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid, and dopamine can inform the clinical treatment of alcohol dependence and withdrawal. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2015;39:2268-82.
10. Feltenstein MW, See RE. The neurocircuitry of addiction: an overview. Br J Pharmacol. 2008;154:261-74.
11. Buck SA, Torregrossa MM, Logan RW, Freyberg Z. Roles of dopamine and glutamate co-release in the nucleus accumbens in mediating the actions of drugs of abuse. FEBS J. 2021;288:1462-74.
12. Chiara G, Imperato A. Ethanol preferentially stimulates dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1985;115:131-2.
13. Engleman EA, Ingraham CM, Rodd ZA, Murphy JM, McBride WJ, Ding ZM. The reinforcing effects of ethanol within the prelimbic cortex and ethanol drinking: involvement of local dopamine D2 receptor-mediated neurotransmission. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2020;214:108165.
14. Dahchour A, Ward RJ. Changes in brain dopamine extracellular concentration after ethanol administration; rat microdialysis studies. Alcohol Alcohol. 2022;57:165-75.
15. Domi E, Domi A, Adermark L, Heilig M, Augier E. Neurobiology of alcohol seeking behavior. J Neurochem. 2021;157:1585-614.
17. Elman I, Borsook D. The failing cascade: comorbid post traumatic stress- and opioid use disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;103:374-83.
18. Volkow ND, Tomasi D, Wang GJ, et al. Predominance of D2 receptors in mediating dopamine’s effects in brain metabolism: effects of alcoholism. J Neurosci. 2013;33:4527-35.
19. Jayaram-lindström N, Ericson M, Steensland P, Jerlhag E. Dopamine and alcohol dependence: from bench to clinic. In: Meil WM, Ruby CL, editors. Recent advances in drug addiction research and clinical applications.2016. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63144. [Last accessed on 11 Mar 2025].
21. Vitali M, Napolitano C, Berman MO, et al. Neurophysiological measures and alcohol use disorder (AUD): hypothesizing links between clinical severity index and molecular neurobiological patterns. J Addict Res Ther. 2016;5:182.
22. Comings DE, Blum K. Reward deficiency syndrome: genetic aspects of behavioral disorders. Prog Brain Res. 2000;126:325-41.
23. Blum K, Mclaughlin T, Gold MS, et al. Are we getting high cause the thrill is gone? J Addict Psychiatry. ;2023:7:5-516.
24. Voon V, Grodin E, Mandali A, et al. Addictions neuroImaging assessment (ANIA): towards an integrative framework for alcohol use disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;113:492-506.
25. Blum K, Bowirrat A, Baron D. , et al. Identification of stress-induced epigenetic methylation onto dopamine D2 gene and neurological and behavioral consequences. Gene Protein Dis. 2024;3:10.36922/gpd.1966.
27. Gondré-Lewis MC, Bassey R, Blum K. Pre-clinical models of reward deficiency syndrome: a behavioral octopus. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2020;115:164-88.
28. Büchel C, Peters J, Banaschewski T, et al. IMAGEN consortium. Blunted ventral striatal responses to anticipated rewards foreshadow problematic drug use in novelty-seeking adolescents. Nat Commun. 2017;8:14140.
29. Wingo T, Nesil T, Choi JS, Li MD. Novelty seeking and drug addiction in humans and animals: from behavior to molecules. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2016;11:456-70.
30. Elman I, Lowen S, Frederick BB, Chi W, Becerra L, Pitman RK. Functional neuroimaging of reward circuitry responsivity to monetary gains and losses in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2009;66:1083-90.
31. Elman I, Ariely D, Mazar N, et al. Probing reward function in post-traumatic stress disorder with beautiful facial images. Psychiatry Res. 2005;135:179-83.
32. Lee JS, Jung S, Park IH, Kim JJ. Neural basis of anhedonia and amotivation in patients with schizophrenia: the role of reward system. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2015;13:750-9.
33. Lambert C, Da Silva S, Ceniti AK, Rizvi SJ, Foussias G, Kennedy SH. Anhedonia in depression and schizophrenia: a transdiagnostic challenge. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2018;24:615-23.
34. Cooper JA, Arulpragasam AR, Treadway MT. Anhedonia in depression: biological mechanisms and computational models. Curr Opin Behav Sci. 2018;22:128-35.
35. Elman I, Borsook D, Lukas SE. Food intake and reward mechanisms in patients with schizophrenia: implications for metabolic disturbances and treatment with second-generation antipsychotic agents. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2006;31:2091-120.
36. Blum K, Thanos PK, Gold MS. Dopamine and glucose, obesity, and reward deficiency syndrome. Front Psychol. 2014;5:919.
37. Thanos PK, Zhuo J, Robison L, et al. Suboptimal maternal diets alter mu opioid receptor and dopamine type 1 receptor binding but exert no effect on dopamine transporters in the offspring brain. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2018;64:21-8.
38. Gyollai A, Griffiths MD, Barta C, et al. The genetics of problem and pathological gambling: a systematic review. Curr Pharm Des. 2014;20:3993-9.
39. Schmidt C, Morris LS, Kvamme TL, Hall P, Birchard T, Voon V. Compulsive sexual behavior: prefrontal and limbic volume and interactions. Hum Brain Mapp. 2017;38:1182-90.
40. Modestino EJ, Blum K, Dennen CA, et al. Theorizing the role of dopaminergic polymorphic risk alleles with intermittent explosive disorder (IED), violent/aggressive behavior and addiction: justification of genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) testing. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1946.
41. Blum K, Braverman ER, Wu S, et al. Association of polymorphisms of dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2), and dopamine transporter (DAT1) genes with schizoid/avoidant behaviors (SAB). Mol Psychiatry. 1997;2:239-46.
42. Chester DS, DeWall CN, Derefinko KJ, et al. Looking for reward in all the wrong places: dopamine receptor gene polymorphisms indirectly affect aggression through sensation-seeking. Soc Neurosci. 2016;11:487-94.
43. Qayyum A, Zai CC, Hirata Y, et al. The role of the catechol-o-methyltransferase (COMT) geneVal158Met in aggressive behavior, a review of genetic studies. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2015;13:802-14.
44. Elman I, Borsook D, Volkow N. Pain and suicidality: insights from reward and addiction neuroscience. Prog Neurobiol. 2013;109:1-27.
45. Belujon P, Grace AA. Dopamine system dysregulation in major depressive disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2017;20:1036-46.
46. Williams CL, Milanak ME, Judah MR, Berenbaum H. The association between PTSD and facial affect recognition. Psychiatry Res. 2018;265:298-302.
47. Blum K, Bowirrat A, Braverman ER, et al. Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): a cytoarchitectural common neurobiological trait of all addictions. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:11529.
48. Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Goldstein RZ. Role of dopamine, the frontal cortex and memory circuits in drug addiction: insight from imaging studies. Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2002;78:610-24.
49. Enman NM, Arthur K, Ward SJ, Perrine SA, Unterwald EM. Anhedonia, reduced cocaine reward, and dopamine dysfunction in a rat model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78:871-9.
50. Felger JC, Mun J, Kimmel HL, et al. Chronic interferon-α decreases dopamine 2 receptor binding and striatal dopamine release in association with anhedonia-like behavior in nonhuman primates. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013;38:2179-87.
51. Comings DE, Wu S, Chiu C, et al. Polygenic inheritance of tourette syndrome, stuttering, attention deficit hyperactivity, conduct, and oppositional defiant disorder: The additive and subtractive effect of the three dopaminergic genes-DRD2, DβH, and DAT1. Am J Med Genet. 1996;67:264-88.
52. Gjedde A, Kumakura Y, Cumming P, Linnet J, Møller A. Inverted-U-shaped correlation between dopamine receptor availability in striatum and sensation seeking. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107:3870-5.
53. Noble EP, Blum K, Ritchie T, Montgomery A, Sheridan PJ. Allelic association of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with receptor-binding characteristics in alcoholism. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48:648-54.
54. Kuchel O, Racz K, Debinski W, Falardeau P, Buu NT. Contrasting dopaminergic patterns in two forms of genetic hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens A. 1987;9:987-1008.
55. Camarini R, Marcourakis T, Teodorov E, Yonamine M, Calil HM. Ethanol-induced sensitization depends preferentially on D1 rather than D2 dopamine receptors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2011;98:173-80.
56. Nelson AM, Larson GA, Zahniser NR. Low or high cocaine responding rats differ in striatal extracellular dopamine levels and dopamine transporter number. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2009;331:985-97.
57. Hodgkinson CA, Yuan Q, Xu K, et al. Addictions biology: haplotype-based analysis for 130 candidate genes on a single array. Alcohol Alcohol. 2008;43:505-15.
58. Li CY, Mao X, Wei L. Genes and (common) pathways underlying drug addiction. PLoS Comput Biol. 2008;4:e2.
59. Blum K, McLaughlin T, Bowirrat A, et al. Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) surprisingly is evolutionary and found everywhere: is it “blowin’ in the wind”? J Pers Med. 2022;12:321.
60. Blum K, Han D, Bowirrat A, et al. Genetic addiction risk and psychological profiling analyses for “preaddiction” severity index. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1772.
61. Blum K, Cadet JL, Thanos PK, et al. Neurogenetics of alcohol use disorder a subset of reward deficiency syndrome: candidate genes to be or not to be? In: Tsermpini EE, Alda M, Patrinos GP, editors. Psychiatric genomics. Elsevier Inc.; 2022. p. 105-60.
62. Blum K, Badgaiyan RD, Agan G, et al. Molecular genetic testing in reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): facts and fiction. J Reward Defic Syndr. 2015;1:65-8.
63. Oberlin BG, Dzemidzic M, Bragulat V, et al. Limbic responses to reward cues correlate with antisocial trait density in heavy drinkers. Neuroimage. 2012;60:644-52.
64. Hu G, Jain K, Hurle M. Revealing transforming growth factor-beta signaling transduction in human kidney by gene expression data mining. OMICS. 2005;9:266-80.
65. Stice E, Yokum S, Burger K, Epstein L, Smolen A. Multilocus genetic composite reflecting dopamine signaling capacity predicts reward circuitry responsivity. J Neurosci. 2012;32:10093-100.
66. Blum K, Hauser M, Fratantonio J, Badgaiyan RD. Molecular genetic testing in pain and addiction: facts, fiction and clinical utility. Addict Genet. 2015;2:1-5.
67. Blum K, Oscar-Berman M, Jacobs W, McLaughlin T, Gold MS. Buprenorphine response as a function of neurogenetic polymorphic antecedents: can dopamine genes affect clinical outcomes in reward deficiency syndrome (RDS)? J Addict Res Ther. 2014;5:1000185.
68. Levey DF, Le-Niculescu H, Frank J, et al. GESGA Consortium. Genetic risk prediction and neurobiological understanding of alcoholism. Transl Psychiatry. 2014;4:e391.
69. Pearson-Fuhrhop KM, Dunn EC, Mortero S, et al. Dopamine genetic risk score predicts depressive symptoms in healthy adults and adults with depression. PLoS One. 2014;9:e93772.
70. Gilley ED, Bowirrat A, Gupta A, et al. The future is now for precision genomic addiction medicine as a frontline modality for inducing “dopamine homeostasis” in reward deficiency syndrome (RDS). Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2024;25:42-57. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2174/1389201024666230427111117. [Last accessed on 17 Mar 2025]
71. Blum K, Bowirrat A, Baron D, et al. Biotechnical development of genetic addiction risk score (GARS) and selective evidence for inclusion of polymorphic allelic risk in substance use disorder (SUD). J Syst Integr Neurosci. 2020;6:10.15761/JSIN.1000221.
72. Gold MS, Blum K, Febo M, et al. Molecular role of dopamine in anhedonia linked to reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) and anti- reward systems. Front Biosci (Schol Ed). 2018;10:309-25.
73. Elman I, D’Ambra N, Krause S, et al. Ultrarapid opioid detoxification: effects on cardiopulmonary physiology, stress hormones and clinical outcomes. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2001;61:163-72.
74. Khantzian EJ. The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: a reconsideration and recent applications. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 1997;4:231-44.
75. Uslaner J, Kalechstein A, Richter T, Ling W, Newton T. Association of depressive symptoms during abstinence with the subjective high produced by cocaine. Am J Psychiatry. 1999;156:1444-6.
76. Tremblay LK, Naranjo CA, Graham SJ, et al. Functional neuroanatomical substrates of altered reward processing in major depressive disorder revealed by a dopaminergic probe. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:1228-36.
77. Tremblay LK, Naranjo CA, Cardenas L, Herrmann N, Busto UE. Probing brain reward system function in major depressive disorder: altered response to dextroamphetamine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:409-16.
78. Elman I, Karlsgodt KH, Gastfriend DR, Chabris CF, Breiter HC. Cocaine-primed craving and its relationship to depressive symptomatology in individuals with cocaine dependence. Psychopharmacol. 2002;16:163-7.
79. Berridge KC. The debate over dopamine’s role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology. 2007;191:391-431.
80. Butler SF, Redondo JP, Fernandez KC, Villapiano A. Validation of the spanish addiction severity index multimedia version (S-ASI-MV). Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009;99:18-27.
81. Sobell LC, Kwan E, Sobell MB. Reliability of a drug history questionnaire (DHQ). Addict Behav. 1995;20:233-41.
82. Strantz IH, Welch SP. Postpartum women in outpatient drug abuse treatment: correlates of retention/completion. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1995;27:357-73.
83. Haberstick BC, Smolen A, Stetler GL, et al. Simple sequence repeats in the national longitudinal study of adolescent health: an ethnically diverse resource for genetic analysis of health and behavior. Behav Genet. 2014;44:487-97.
84. Mutirangura A, Kuwano A, Ledbetter SA, Chinault AC, Ledbetter DH. Dinucleotide repeat polymorphism at the D15S11 locus in the angelman/prader-willi region (AS/PWS) of chromosome 15. Hum Mol Genet. 1992;1:139.
85. Anchordoquy HC, McGeary C, Liu L, Krauter KS, Smolen A. Genotyping of three candidate genes after whole-genome preamplification of DNA collected from buccal cells. Behav Genet. 2003;33:73-8.
86. Don J, Wolgemuth DJ. Identification and characterization of the regulated pattern of expression of a novel mouse gene, meg1, during the meiotic cell cycle. Cell Growth Differ. 1992;3:495-505.
87. Wendland JR, Martin BJ, Kruse MR, Lesch KP, Murphy DL. Simultaneous genotyping of four functional loci of human SLC6A4, with a reappraisal of 5-HTTLPR and rs25531. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11:224-6.
88. Haberstick BC, Smolen A. Genotyping of three single nucleotide polymorphisms following whole genome preamplification of DNA collected from buccal cells. Behav Genet. 2004;34:541-7.
89. Lee LG, Livak KJ, Mullah B, Graham RJ, Vinayak RS, Woudenberg TM. Seven-color, homogeneous detection of six PCR products. Biotechniques. 1999;27:342-9.
90. Livák F, Tourigny M, Schatz DG, Petrie HT. Characterization of TCR gene rearrangements during adult murine T cell development. J Immunol. 1999;162:2575-80.
91. Chen B, Cole JW, Grond-Ginsbach C. Departure from hardy weinberg equilibrium and genotyping error. Front Genet. 2017;8:167.
92. Yokum S, Marti CN, Smolen A, Stice E. Relation of the multilocus genetic composite reflecting high dopamine signaling capacity to future increases in BMI. Appetite. 2015;87:38-45.
93. Conner BT, Hellemann GS, Ritchie TL, Noble EP. Genetic, personality, and environmental predictors of drug use in adolescents. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2010;38:178-90.
94. Ishibashi K, Ishii K, Oda K, Kawasaki K, Mizusawa H, Ishiwata K. Regional analysis of age-related decline in dopamine transporters and dopamine D2-like receptors in human striatum. Synapse. 2009;63:282-90.
95. Bäckman L, Nyberg L, Lindenberger U, Li SC, Farde L. The correlative triad among aging, dopamine, and cognition: current status and future prospects. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30:791-807.
96. Trifilieff P, Martinez D. Imaging addiction: D2 receptors and dopamine signaling in the striatum as biomarkers for impulsivity. Neuropharmacology. 2014;76:498-509.
97. Blum K, Braverman ER, Holder JM, et al. The reward deficiency syndrome: a biogenetic model for the diagnosis and treatment of impulsive, addictive and compulsive behaviors. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2000;32:1-112.
98. Li SC, Papenberg G, Nagel IE, et al. Aging magnifies the effects of dopamine transporter and D2 receptor genes on backward serial memory. Neurobiol Aging. 2013;34:358.e1-10.
99. Blum K, Noble EP, Sheridan PJ, et al. Allelic association of human dopamine D2 receptor gene in alcoholism. JAMA. 1990;263:2055-60.
100. Blum K, Modestino EJ, Badgaiyan RD, et al. Analysis of evidence for the combination of pro-dopamine regulator (KB220PAM) and naltrexone to prevent opioid use disorder relapse. EC Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;7:564-79.
101. Xu K, Lichtermann D, Lipsky RH, et al. Association of specific haplotypes of D2 dopamine receptor gene with vulnerability to heroin dependence in 2 distinct populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:597-606.
102. Shapira B, Rosca P, Berkovitz R, Gorjaltsan I, Neumark Y. The switch from one substance-of-abuse to another: illicit drug substitution behaviors in a sample of high-risk drug users. PeerJ. 2020;8:e9461.
103. Elman I, Pustilnik A, Borsook D. Beating pain with psychedelics: matter over mind? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;134:104482.
104. Kótyuk E, Urbán R, Hende B, et al. Development and validation of the reward deficiency syndrome questionnaire (RDSQ-29). J Psychopharmacol. 2022;36:409-22.
105. Admon R, Holsen LM, Aizley H, et al. Striatal hypersensitivity during stress in remitted individuals with recurrent depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2015;78:67-76.
106. Elman I, Upadhyay J, Langleben DD, Albanese M, Becerra L, Borsook D. Reward and aversion processing in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: functional neuroimaging with visual and thermal stimuli. Transl Psychiatry. 2018;8:240.
107. Kim YJ, Kook WA, Ma SX. , et al. The novel psychoactive substance 25E-NBOMe induces reward-related behaviors via dopamine D1 receptor signaling in male rodents. Arch Pharm Res. 2024;47:360-76.
108. Weissman MM, Wickramaratne P, Greenwald S. The changing rate of major depression. JAMA. 1992;268:3098-105.
109. Black RA, Trudeau KJ, Cassidy TA, Budman SH, Butler SF. Associations between public health indicators and injecting prescription opioids by prescription opioid abusers in substance abuse treatment. J Opioid Manag. 2013;9:5-17.
110. Bondon-Guitton E, Despas F, Becquemont L. The contribution of pharmacogenetics to pharmacovigilance. Therapie. 2016;71:223-8.
111. Talukdar S, Owen BM, Song P, et al. FGF21 regulates sweet and alcohol preference. Cell Metab. 2016;23:344-9.
112. Blum K, Soni D, Badgaiyan RD, Baron D. Overcoming reward deficiency syndrome by the induction of “dopamine homeostasis” instead of opioids for addiction: illusion or reality? J Osteopath Med. 2022;122:333-7.
113. Blum K, Gondré-Lewis MC, Baron D, et al. Introducing precision addiction management of reward deficiency syndrome, the construct that underpins all addictive behaviors. Front Psychiatry. 2018;9:548.
114. Blum K, Chen AL, Braverman ER, et al. Attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder and reward deficiency syndrome. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2008;4:893-918.
115. Ivanov I, Bjork JM, Blair J, Newcorn JH. Sensitization-based risk for substance abuse in vulnerable individuals with ADHD: review and re-examination of evidence. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2022;135:104575.
116. Blum K, Bowirrat A, Thanos PK, et al. Evidence based clinical analytics supporting the genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) assessment to early identify probands in preaddiction. EC Psychol Psychiatry. 2024;13:1-3.
117. An X, Zhang Y, Sun W, et al. Early effective intervention can significantly reduce all-cause mortality in prediabetic patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on high-quality clinical studies. Front Endocrinol. 2024;15:1294819.
118. Prevention Program Research Group. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the diabetes prevention program outcomes study. Lancet. 2009;374:1677-86.
119. Blum K, Elman I, Dennen CA, et al. “Preaddiction” construct and reward deficiency syndrome: genetic link via dopaminergic dysregulation. Ann Transl Med. 2022;10:1181.
120. Samek DR, Bailey J, Hill KG, et al. A test-replicate approach to candidate gene research on addiction and externalizing disorders: a collaboration across five longitudinal studies. Behav Genet. 2016;46:608-26.
121. Bjork JM, Smith AR, Chen G, Hommer DW. Mesolimbic recruitment by nondrug rewards in detoxified alcoholics: effort anticipation, reward anticipation, and reward delivery. Hum Brain Mapp. 2012;33:2174-88.
122. Blum K, Han D, Gupta A, et al. Statistical validation of risk alleles in genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) test: early identification of risk for alcohol use disorder (AUD) in 74,566 case-control subjects. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1385.
123. Blum K, Baron D, Lott L, et al. In search of reward deficiency syndrome (RDS)-free controls: the “holy grail” in genetic addiction risk testing. Curr Psychopharmacol. 2020;9:7-21.
124. Blum K, Brodie MS, Pandey SC, et al. Researching mitigation of alcohol binge drinking in polydrug abuse: KCNK13 and RASGRF2 gene(s) risk polymorphisms coupled with genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) guiding precision pro-dopamine regulation. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1009.
125. Gupta A, Bowirrat A, Gomez LL, et al. Hypothesizing in the face of the opioid crisis coupling genetic addiction risk severity (GARS) testing with electrotherapeutic nonopioid modalities such as H-Wave could attenuate both pain and hedonic addictive behaviors. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:552.
126. Blum K, Chen ALC, Thanos PK, et al. Genetic addiction risk score (GARS)TM, a predictor of vulnerability to opioid dependence. Front Biosci (Elite Ed). 2018;10:175-96.
127. Moran M, Blum K, Ponce JV, et al. High genetic addiction risk score (GARS) in chronically prescribed severe chronic opioid probands attending multi-pain clinics: an open clinical pilot trial. Mol Neurobiol. 2021;58:3335-46.
128. Vereczkei A, Barta C, Magi A, et al. FOXN3 and GDNF polymorphisms as common genetic factors of substance use and addictive behaviors. J Pers Med. 2022;12:690.
129. Blum K, Steinberg B, Gondre-Lewis MC, et al. A review of DNA risk alleles to determine epigenetic repair of mRNA expression to prove therapeutic effectiveness in reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): embracing “precision behavioral management”. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2021;14:2115-34.
130. Fried L, Modestino EJ, Siwicki D, et al. Hypodopaminergia and “precision behavioral management” (PBM): it is a generational family affair. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2020;21:528-41.
131. Thanos PK, Hanna C, Mihalkovic A, et al. Genetic correlates as a predictor of bariatric surgery outcomes after 1 year. Biomedicines. 2023;11:2644.
132. Blum K, Bowirrat A, Gondre Lewis MC, et al. Exploration of epigenetic state hyperdopaminergia (surfeit) and genetic trait hypodopaminergia (deficit) during adolescent brain development. Curr Psychopharmacol. 2021;10:181-96.
133. Dennen CA, Blum K, Bowirrat A, et al. Genetic addiction risk severity assessment identifies polymorphic reward genes as antecedents to reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) hypodopaminergia’s effect on addictive and non-addictive behaviors in a nuclear family. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1864.
134. Blum K, Baron D, McLaughlin T, et al. Summary document research on RDS anti-addiction modeling: annotated bibliography. J Addict Psychiatry. 2024;8:1-33.
135. Bajaj A, Blum K, Bowirrat A, et al. DNA directed pro-dopamine regulation coupling subluxation repair, H-Wave® and other neurobiologically based modalities to address complexities of chronic pain in a female diagnosed with reward deficiency syndrome (RDS): emergence of induction of “dopamine homeostasis” in the face of the opioid crisis. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1416.
136. Thanos PK, Hanna C, Mihalkovic A, et al. The first exploratory personalized medicine approach to improve bariatric surgery outcomes utilizing psychosocial and genetic risk assessments: encouraging clinical research. J Pers Med. 2023;13:1164.
137. Gondré-Lewis MC, Elman I, Alim T, et al. Frequency of the dopamine receptor D3 (rs6280) vs. opioid receptor µ1 (rs1799971) polymorphic risk alleles in patients with opioid use disorder: a preponderance of dopaminergic mechanisms? Biomedicines. 2022;10:870.
138. Blum K, Oscar-Berman M, Femino J, et al. Withdrawal from buprenorphine/naloxone and maintenance with a natural dopaminergic agonist: a cautionary note. J Addict Res Ther. 2013:4.
139. Blum K, Gold MS, Cadet JL, et al. Invited expert opinion- Bio-informatic and limitation Di-rectives to help adopt Ge-netic addiction risk screening and identify preaddictive reward dysregulation: Re-quired analytic evidence to induce dopamine homeostatsis. Med Res Arch. 2023:11.
140. Blum K, Braverman ER, Gold MS, et al. Addressing cortex dysregulation in youth through brain health check coaching and prophylactic brain development. INNOSC Theranostics Pharmacol Sci. 2024;7:1472.
141. Blum K, Badgaiyan RD, Agan G, et al. Response to the SAMHSA clinical advisory: considerations for genetic testing in the assessment of substance use disorder risk. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2025;16:23-6.
142. Lewandrowski KU, Sharafshah A, Elfar J, Schmidt SL, Blum K, Wetzel FT. A pharmacogenomics-based in silico investigation of opioid prescribing in post-operative spine pain management and personalized therapy. Cell Mol Neurobiol. 2024;44:47.
143. Blum K, Green R, Mullen P, et al. Reward deficiency syndrome solution system (RDSSS) a genetically driven putative inducer of “dopamine homeostasis” as a futuristic alternative to enhance rehabilitation instead of incarceration. Asian J Complement Altern Med. 2023;11:11-4.
