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Figure 1. Various forms of immunotherapy in preclinical and clinical trials for glioblastoma treatment. (A) Various checkpoint inhibitors, including α-PD1, α-PD-L1, α-CTLA-4, and α-TIM-3, have been studied in glioblastoma treatment; (B) CAR-based adoptive cell therapies have attained immense success against hematopoietic cancer, but have shown limited effects on glioblastoma; (C) Cancer vaccine has been tested in glioblastoma treatment by priming antigen-presenting cells (e.g., Dendritic Cells) with tumor antigens/lysate or synthetic antigen peptides, followed by infusion back to the patients; (D) An OV can lyse tumor cells through replication. OV can be armed with immunotherapy in which a virus is genetically modified to carry checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., α-PD-L1 and α-CTLA-4), therapeutic proteins, chemokine (Cxcl9, Cxcl10) or cytokines genes (IFNγ, IL-6, IL-12). Those armed OVs are more potent in killing cancer cells^[52]. (Created with BioRender.com). CTLA-4: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4; GSC: glioma stem cell; LAG-3: lymphocyte activation gene-3; OV: oncolytic virus; TAM: tumor-associated macrophage.