fig4

Figure 4. The mechanism of Paraptosis. Paraptosis was initially discovered to be induced by IGFIR and mediated through the MAPK pathways. Furthermore, it is intricately linked to various factors, including TrxR1 inhibition, GSH depletion, intracellular Ca²⁺ homeostasis, activation of BKCa channels, and proteasome inhibition. BKCa: Ca²⁺-activated K⁺; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; GSH: glutathione; IGFIR: insulin-like growth factor-I receptor; MAPK: MAP kinase; ROS: reactive oxygen species.