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Figure 3. Comparison of LPS, DSP-4, rotenone, and paraquat/maneb. This figure illustrates that toxins produce neurotoxicity through different mechanisms: (1) LPS by activating microglia; (2) DSP-4 by directly damaging LC /NE neurons; and (3) rotenone and paraquat/maneb by exert directing neurotoxicity in high concentrations while in lower concentrations causing activation of microglia. However, between neuronal damage and reactivation of microglia, eventually, these toxins all generate a self-propelling vicious cycle to keep chronic neuroinflammation continued and drive progressive. (This figure was modified from our previous paper with
