fig2

Figure 2. The schematic diagram demonstrates that in primary or recurrent GBM patients, the standard regimens consists of TMZ, radiation, TTFields, bevacizumab, etoposide and cisplatin, which enhance cell stemness, metabolism (energy), anti-apoptosis and DNA repair to acquire therapeutic resistance through the signaling pathways of DDR, ROS, hypoxia, AKT/mTOR, MST4 kinase, AMPK and RB. Nowadays, the inhibitors of late-stage autophagy, such as CQ or its analogs, have been tested in clinical trials of GBM patients. TMZ: temozolomide; GBM: glioblastoma; TTFields: tumor treating fields; ROS: reactive oxygen species; DDR: DNA damage response; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; RB: retinoblastoma; CQ: chloroquine