REFERENCES
1. Swarts DR, Ramaekers FC, Speel EJ. Molecular and cellular biology of neuroendocrine lung tumors: evidence for separate biological entities. Biochim Biophys Acta 2012;1826:255-71.
2. WHO classification of Tumours of the Digestive System. In: Bosman FT, Carneiro F, Hruban RH, Theise ND, editors. World Heath Organization Classification of Tumours, Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC); 2010:417.
3. Modlin IM, Pavel M, Kidd M, Gustaffsson BI. Review article somatostatin analogues in the treatment of gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine (carcinoid) tumours. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2010;31:169-88.
4. Yao JC, Shah MH, Ito T, Bohas CL, Wolin EM, Van Cutsem E, Hobday TJ, Okusaka T, Capdevila J, de Vries EG, Tomassetti P, Pavel ME, Hoosen S, Haas T, Lincy J, Lebwohl D, Öberg K, RAD001 in Advanced Neuroendocrine Tumors, Third Trial (RADIANT-3) Study Group. Everolimus for advanced pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2011;364:514-23.
5. Capdevila J, Salazar R, Halperin I, Abad A, Yao JC. Innovations therapy: mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors for the treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2011;30 Suppl 1:27-34.
6. Bajetta E, Catena L, Fazio N, Pusceddu S, Biondani P, Bianco G, Ricci S, Aieta M, Pucci F, Valente M, Bianco N, Mauri CM, Spada F. Everolimus combination with octreotide long-acting repeatable in a first-line setting for patients with neuroendocrine tumours. Cancer 2014;120:2457-63.
7. Raymond E, Dahan L, Raoul JL, Bang YJ, Borbath I, Lombard-Bohas C, Valle J, Metrakos P, Smith D, Vinik A, Chen JS, Hörsch D, Hammel P, Wiedenmann B, Van Cutsem E, Patyna S, Lu DR, Blanckmeister C, Chao R, Ruszniewski P. Sunitinib malate for the treatment of pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2011;364:501-13.
8. Kulke MH, Lenz HJ, Meropol NJ, Posey J, Ryan DP, Picus J, Bergsland E, Stuart K, Tye L, Huang X, Li JZ, Baum CM, Fuchs CS. Activity of sunitinib in patients with advanced neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3403-10.
9. Bajetta E, Catena L, Valente M, Bianco N, Bellomo F, Bombardieri E. New perspectives in the treatment of neuroendocrine tumours. Anticancer Res 2012;32:4193-200.
10. Sowa-Staszczak A, Pach D, Chrzan R, Trofimiuk M, Stefańska A, Tomaszuk M, Kołodziej M, Mikołajczak R, Pawlak D, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A. Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy as a potential tool for neoadjuvant therapy in patients with inoperable neuroendocrine tumours (NETs). Eir J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2011;38:1669-74.
11. Strosberg J, Kvols L. Antiproliferative effect of somatostatin analogs in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. World J Gastroenterol 2010;16:2963-70.
12. Florio T. Somatostatin/somatostatin receptor signalling: phosphotyrosine phosphatase. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2008;286:40-8.
13. Florio T, Yao H, carey KD, Dillon TJ, Stork PJ. Somatostatin activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase via somatostatin receptor 1 (SSTR1). Mol Endocrinol 1999;13:24-37.
14. Serri O, Brazeau P, Kachra Z, Posner B. Octreotide inhibits insulin-like growth factor-1 hepatic gene expression in the hypophysectomized rat: evidence for a direct and indirect mechanism of action. Endocrinology 1992;130:1816-21.
15. Hoyer D, Bell GI, Berelowitz M, Epelbuam J, Feniuk W, Humphrey PP, O'Carroll AM, Patel YC, Schnbrunn A, Taylor JE. Classification and nomenclature of somatostatin receptor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1995;16:86-8.
16. Bauer W, Briner U, Doepfner W, Haller R, Huguenin R, Marbach P, Petcher TJ, Pless. SMS 201-995: a very potent and selective octapeptide analogue of somatostatin with prolonged action. Life Sci 1982;31:1133-40.
17. Bruns C, Weckbecker G, Raulf F, Kaupmann K, Schoeffter P, Hoyer D, Lübbert H. Molecular pharmacology of somatostatin-receptor subtyes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994;733:138-46.
18. Strosberg JR, Coppola D, Klimstra DS, Phan AT, Kulke MH, Wiseman GA, Kvols LK; North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society (NANETS). The NANETS consensus guidelines for the diagnosis and management of poorly differentiated (high-grade) extrapulmonary neuroendocrine carcinomas. Pancreas 2010;39:799-800.
19. Sorbye H, Welin S, Langer SW, Vestermark LW, Holt N, Osterlund P, Dueland S, Hofsli E, Guren MG, Ohrling K, Birkemeyer E, Thiis-Evensen E, Biagini M, Gronbaek H, Soveri LM, Olsen IH, Federspiel B, Assmus J, Janson ET, Knigge U. Predictive and prognostic factors for treatment and survival in 305 patients with advanced gastrointestinal poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma (WHO G3): the NORDIC NEC study. Ann Oncol 2013;24:152-60.
20. Walter T, Bruneton D, Cassier PA, Hervieu V, Pilleul F, Scoazec JY, Chayvialle JA, Lombard-Bohas C. Evaluation of the combination 5-fluorouracil, dacarbazine, and epirubicin in patients with advanced well-differentiated neuroendocrine tumors. Clin Colorectal Cancer 2010;9:248-54.
21. Kulke MH, Hornick JL, Frauenhoffer C, Hooshmand S, Ryan DP, Enzinger PC, Meyerhardt JA, Clark JW, Stuart K, Fuchs CS, Redston MS. O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase deficiency and response to temozolomide-based therapy in patients with neuroendocrine tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2009;15:338-45.
22. Bajetta E, Catena L, Procopio G, De Dosso S, Bichisao E, Ferrari L, Martinetti A, Platania M, Verzoni E, Formisano B, Bajetta R. Are capecitabine and oxaliplatin (XELOX) suitable treatments for progressing low-grade and high-grade neuroendocrine tumours? Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2007;59:637-42.
23. Berruti A, Fazio N, Ferrero A, Brizzi MP, Volante M, Nobili E, Tozzi L, Bodei L, Torta M, D'Avolio A, Priola AM, Birocco N, Amoroso V, Biasco G, Papotti M, Dogliotti L. Bevacizumab plus octreotide and metronomic capecitabine in patients with metastatic well-to-moderately differentiated neuroendocrine tumors: the XELBEVOCT study. BMC Cancer 2014;14:184.
24. Koumarianou A, Antoniou S, Kanakis G, Economopoulos N, Rontogianni D, Ntavatzikos A, Tsavaris N, Pectasides D, Dimitriadis G, Kaltsas G. Combination treatment with metronomic temozolomide, bevacizumab and long-acting octreotide for malignant neuroendocrine tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer 2012;19:L1-4.
25. Brazeau P, Vale W, Burgus E, Ling N, Butcher M, Rivier J, Guillemin R. Hypothalamic polypeptide that inhibits the secretion of immunoreactive pituitary growth hormone. Science 1973;179:77-9.
26. Burgus R, Ling N, Butcher M, Guillemin R. Primary structure of somatostatin, a hypotalamic peptide that inhibits the secretion of pituitary growth hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1973;70:684-8.
27. Reisine T, Bell GI. Molecular biology of somatostatin receptors. Endocr Rev 1995;16:427-42.
28. Yamada Y, Post SR, Wang K, Tager HS, Bell GI, Seino S. Cloning and functional characterization of a family of human and mouse somatostatin receptors expressed in brain, gastrointestinal tract, and kidney. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992;89:251-5.
29. Nilsson O, Kölby L, Wängberg B, Wigander A, Billig H, William-Olsson L, Fjälling M, Forssell-Aronsson E, Ahlman H. Comparative studies on the expression of somatostatin receptor subtypes, outcome of octreotide scintigraphy and response to octreotide treatment in patients with carcinoid tumours. Br J Cancer 1998;77:632-7.
30. Reubi JC, Kvols LK, Waser B, Nagorney DM, Heitz PU, Charboneau JW, Reading CC, Moertel C. Detection of somatostatin receptors in surgical and percutaneous needle biopsy samples of carcinoids and islet cell carcinomas. Cancer Res 1990;50:5969-77.
31. Krenning EP, Kwekkeboom DJ, Bakker WH, Breeman WA, Kooij PP, Oei Hy, van Hagen M, Postema PT, de Jong M, Reubi JC. Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy with 111In-STPA-D-Phe1 and 123-Tyr3-octreotide the Rotterdam experience with more than 1000 patients. Eur J Nucl Med 1993;20:716-31.
32. Panzuto F, Capurso G, Delle Fave G. Medical treatment of gastro-entero-pancreatic endocrine tumours. In: Modlin IM, Oberg K. A century of advences in neuroendocrine tumor biology and treatment. Published by Felsenstein CCC; 2007. pp. 364-9.
33. Strosberg JR, Fisher GA, Benson AB, Malin JL, GEPNET Treatment Consensus Panel, Cherepanov D, Broder MS, Anthony LB, Arslan B, Fisher GA, Gibbs JF, Greeno E, Iyer RV, Kim MK, Maples W, Philip PA, Strosberg J, Wolin EM. Systemic treatment in unresectable metastatic well-differentiated carcinoid tumors: consensus results from a modified delphi process. Pancreas 2013;42:397-404.
34. Rinke A, Müller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, Klose KJ, Barth P, Wied M, Mayer C, Aminossadati B, Pape UF, Bläker M, Harder J, Arnold C, Gress T, Arnold R; PROMID Study Group. Placebo-controlled, double-blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumours: a report from the PROMID study Group. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:4565-63.
35. Janson ET, Oberg K. Long-term management of the carcinoid syndrome. Treatment with octreotide alone and in combination with alpha-interferon. Acta Oncol 1993;32:225-9.
36. Kvols LK, Moertel CG, O'Connell MJ, Schutt AJ, Rubin J, Hahn RG. Treatment of the malignant carcinoid syndrome. Evaluation of a long-acting somatostatin analogue. N Engl J Med 1986;315:663-6.
37. Rubin J, Ajani J, Schirmer W, Venook AP, Bukowski R, Pommier R, Saltz L, Dandona P, Anthony L. Octreotide acetate long-acting formulation versus open-label subcutaneous octreotide acetate in malignant carcinoid syndrome. J Clin Oncol 1999:17:600-6 .
38. Rinke A, Wittenberg M, Schade-Brittinger C, Aminossadati B, Ronicke E, Gress TM, Müller HH, Arnold R; PROMID Study Group. Placebo controlled, double blind, prospective, randomized study on the effect of octreotide LAR in the control of tumor growth in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine midgut tumors (PROMID): Results on long-term survival (abstract). ASCO meeting Abstracts 2013;31:4030.
39. Sandostatin LAR Depot [prescribing information]. East Hanover, New Jersey: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; 2011. [cited 2014 Jul 30] Available from: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/.
40. Khan MS, El-Khouly F, Davies P, Toumpanakis C, Caplin ME. Long-term results of treatment of malignant carcinoid syndrome with prolonged release Lanreotide (Somatuline Autogel). Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011;34:235-42.
41. O'Toole D, Ducreux M, Bommelaer G, Wemeau JL, Bouché O, Catus F, Blumberg J, Ruszniewski P. Treatment of carcinoid syndrome: a prospective crossover evaluation of lanreotide versus octreotide in terms of efficacy, patient acceptability, and tolerance. Cancer 2000;88:770-6.
42. Wymenga AN, Eriksson B, Salmela PI, Jacobsen MB, Van Cutsem EJ, Fiasse RH, Välimäki MJ, Renstrup J, de Vries EG, Oberg KE. Efficacy and safety of prolonged-release lanreotide in patients with gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors and hrmone-related symptoms. J Clin Oncol 1999;17:1111.
43. Vinik A, Wolin EM, Audry H, Gomez-Panzani EL; ELECT Study Group. ELECT: A phase 3 study of efficacy and safety of lanreotide aurogel/depot (LAN) treatment for carcinoid syndrome in patients with neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) (abstract). ASCO Meeting Abstracts 2014;32:268.
44. Caplin ME, Pavel M, Cwikla JB, Phan AT, Sedlackova E, Cadio G, Wolin EM, Capdevilla J, Wall L, Rindi G, Langley A, Martinez S, Blumberg J, Ruszniewski P; CLARINET Investigators. Lanreotide in metastatic enteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. N Engl J Med 2014;371:224-33.
45. Bruns C, Lewis I, Briner U, Briner U, Meno-Tetang G, Weckbecker G. SOM-230: a novel somatostatin peptidomimetic with broad somatotropin release inhibiting factor (SRIF) receptor binding and a unique antisecretory profile. Eur J Endocrinol 2002;146:707-16.
46. Schimd HA. Pasireotide (SOM230): development, mechanism of action and potential applications. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2008;286:69-74.
47. Ben-Shlomo A, Melmed S. Pasireotide -- a somatostatin analog for the potential treatment of acromegaly, neurendocrine tumors and Cushing's disease. IDrugs 2007;10:885-95.
48. Modlin IM, Kidd M, Latich I, Zikusoka MN, Shapiro MD. Current status of gastrointestinal carcinoids. Gastroenterology 2005;128:1717-51.
49. Yao JC, Hassan M, Phan A, Dagohoy C, Leary C, Mares JE, Abdalla EK, Fleming JB, Vauthey JN, Rashid A, Evans DB. One hundred years after 'carcinoid': epidemiology of and prognostic factors for neuroendocrine tumors in 35,825 cases in the United States. J Clin Oncol 2008;26:3063-72.
50. Lepage C, Rachet B, Coleman MP. Survival from malignant digestive endocrine tumors in England and Wales: a population-based study. Gastroenterology 2007;132:899-904.
51. Pape UF, Berndt U, Mueller-Nordhorn J, Müller-Nordhorn J, Böhmig M, Roll S, Koch M, Willich SN, Wiedenmann B. Prognostic factors of long-term outcome in gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Endocr Relat Cancer 2008;15:1083-97.
52. Modlin IM, Oberg K, Chung DC, Jensen RT, de Herder WW, Thakker RV, Caplin M, Delle Fave G, Kaltsas GA, Krenning EP, Moss SF, Nilsson O, Rindi G, Salazar R, Ruszniewski P, Sundin A. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumours. Lancet Oncol 2008;9:61-72.
53. Bosman FT, Carneiro F, Hruban RH, Thiese N, editors. World Health Organization Classification of Tumours. Pathology and Genetics. Tumors of the Digestive System. Lyon: IARC Press, 2010.
54. Travis WD, Brambilla E, Muller-Hermelink HK, Harris CC. Pathology and genetics of tumors of the lung, pleura, thymus and heart. Geneva: IARC Press, 2004.
55. Moertel CG, Kvols LK, O'Connell MJ, Rubin J. Treatment of neuroendocrine carcinomas with combined etoposide and cisplatin. Evidence of major therapeutic activity in the anaplastic variants of these neoplasms. Cancer 1991;68:227-32.
56. Mitry E, Baudin E, Ducreaux M, Sabourin JC, Rufié P, Aparicio T, Aparicio T, Lasser P, Elias D, Duvillard P, Schlumberger M, Rougier P. Treatment of poorly differentiated neuroendocrine tumours with etoposide and cisplatin. Br J Cancer 1999;81:1351-5.
57. Fjällskog ML, Granberg DP, Welin SL, Eriksson C, Oberg KE, Janson ET, Eriksson BK. Treatment with cisplatin and etoposide in patients with neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer 2001;92:1101-7.
58. Iwasa S, Morizane C, Okusaka T, Ueno H, Ikeda M, Kondo S, Tanaka T, Nakachi K, Mitsunaga S, Kojima Y, Hagihara A, Hiraoka N. Cisplatin and etoposide as first-line chemotherapy for poorly differentiated neuroendocrine carcinoma of the hepatobiliary tract and pancreas. Jpn J Clin Oncol 2010;40:313-8.
59. Lu ZH, Li J, Lu N, Zhang XT, Li J, Zhou J, Wang XC, Gong JF, Gao J, Li Y, Shen L. Feasibility and efficacy of combined cisplatin plus irinotecan chemotherapy for gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine carcinomas. Med Oncol 2013;30:664.
60. Vélayoudom-Céphise FL, Duvillard P, Foucan L, Hadoux J, Chougnet CN, Leboulleux S, Malka D, Guigay J, Goere D, Debaere T, Caramella C, Schlumberger M, Planchard D, Elias D, Ducreux M, Scoazec JY, Baudin E. Are G3 ENETS neuroendocrine neoplasms heterogeneous? Endocr Relat Cancer 2013;20:649-57.
61. Heetfeld M, Chougnet CN, Olsen IH, Rinke A, Borbath I, Crespo G, Barriuso J, Pavel M, O'Toole D, Walter T; other Knowledge Network members. Characteristics and treatment of patients with G3 gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine neoplasms. Endocr Relat Cancer 2015;22:657-64.
62. Hentic O, Hammel P, Couvelard A, Rebours V, Zappa M, Palazzo M, Maire F, Goujon G, Gillet A, Lévy P, Ruszniewski P. FOLFIRI regimen: an effective second-line chemotherapy after failure of etoposide-platinum combination in patients with neuroendocrine carcinomas grade 3. Endocr Relat Cancer 2012;19:751-7.
63. Welin S, Sorbye H, Sebjornsen S, Knappskog S, Busch C, Oberg K. Clinical effect of temozolomide- based chemotherapy in poorly differentiated endocrine carcinoma after progression on first-line chemotherapy. Cancer 2011;117:4617-22.
64. Kouvaraki MA, Ajani JA, Hoff P, Wolff R, Evans DB, Lozano R, Yao JC. Fluorouracil, doxorubicin, and streptozotocin in the treatment of patients with locally advanced and metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:4762-71.
65. Bajetta E, Rimassa L, Carnaghi C, Seregni E, Ferrari L, Di Bartolomeo M, Regalia E, Cassata A, Procopio G, Mariani L. 5-Fluorouracil, dacarbazine, and epirubicin in the treatment of patients with neuroendocrine tumors. Cancer 1998;83:372-8.
66. Strosberg JR, Fine RL, Choi J, Nasir A, Coppola D, Chen DT, Helm J, Kvols L. First-line chemotherapy with capecitabine and temozolomide in patients with metastatic pancreatic endocrine carcinomas. Cancer 2011;117:268-75.
67. Cassier PA, Walter T, Bohas CL, Ardisson P, Perol M, Paillet C, Chayvialle JA, Scoazec JY, Hervieu V, Bohas CL. Gemcitabine and oxaliplatin combination chemotherapy for metastatic well-differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas. Cancer 2009;115:3392-9.
68. Spada F, Antonuzzo L, Marconcini R, Radice D, Antonuzzo A, Ricci S, Di Costanzo F, Fontana A, Gelsomino F, Luppi G, Nobili E, Galdy S, Cella CA, Sonzogni A, Pisa E, Barberis M, Fazio N. Oxaliplatin-based chemotherapy in advanced neuroendocrine tumors: clinical outcomes and preliminary correlation with biological factors. Neuroendocrinology 2016 Jan 21 ; doi: 10.1159/000444087.
69. Brizzi MP, Berruti A, Ferrero A, Milanesi E, Volante M, Castiglione F, Birocco N, Bombaci S, Perroni D, Ferretti B, Alabiso O, Ciuffreda L, Bertetto O, Papotti M, Dogliotti L. Continuous 5-fluorouracil infusion plus long acting octreotide in advanced well-differentiated neuroendocrine carcinomas. A phase II trial of the Piemonte oncology network. BMC Cancer 2009;9:388.
70. Ceppi P, Volante M, Ferrero A, Righi L, Rapa I, Rosas R, Berruti A, Dogliotti L, Scagliotti GV, Papotti M. Thymidylate synthase expression in gastroenteropancreatic and pulmonary neuroendocrine tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2008;14:1059-64.
71. Lim E, Goldstraw P, Nicholson G, Travis WD, Jett JR, Ferolla P, Bomaji J, Rusch VW, Asamura H, Skogseid B, Baudin EE, Caplin M, Kwekkeboom D, Brambilla E, Crowley J. Proceedings of the IASLC International Workshop on Advances in Pulmonary Neuroendocrine Tumors 2007. J Thorac Oncol 2008;3:1194-201.