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Figure 2. Oxidative stress in aging and AF. Imbalance between reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) production by NADPH oxidase, myeloperoxidase (MPO), xanthine oxidase (XOD), uncoupled nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and the mitochondrial electron transport chain causes oxidative stress, contributing to age-related cellular damage and AF. Dysregulation of acid-labile sulfide pools, catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in aged hearts worsen this imbalance. Exercise, resveratrol, and statins increase antioxidant defenses and show promise in reducing the risk of age-related AF in preclinical or clinical studies, pending further validation through larger-scale studies. The figure was generated with BioRender.com.