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Figure 2. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in cardiovascular aging and disease. Several epigenetic changes are documented in cardiovascular aging and disease, including (A) DNA modifications (5-methylcytosine is also used in epigenetic clocks and associated with cardiovascular disease onset); (B) altered balance of active and repressive histone marks; (C) alterations to transcription factor binding; (D) transcriptional changes; (E) altered expression of non-coding RNAs; (F) chromatin remodeling; and (G) laminopathy and loss of heterochromatin.