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Figure 2. Immune regulatory effects of probiotic EVs. Schematic diagram depicting the various immunomodulatory roles of probiotic EVs, including alteration to cytokine release, activation of immune cells, surface interactions, and changes to antibody production. Table 1 provides a comprehensive summary of the literature suggesting a functional role for probiotic EVs in the immune setting. EVs: Extracellular vesicles; IgA: immunoglobulin A; TRL: toll-like receptor; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; NF-κβ: nuclear factor kappa β.
