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Figure 1. Implicated beneficial effects of probiotic extracellular vesicles in pathophysiological conditions. Schematic representation of the implicated roles that probiotic-derived EVs play in a plethora of pathophysiological processes. Several studies so far have demonstrated the potential of probiotic EVs in modulating the immune system and alleviating pathological conditions such as IBD, diabetes, and ulcerative colitis. The suggested health benefits of probiotic EVs range from improving gut health to inducing chemosensitivity and apoptosis in resistant cancer cells. Their role in several other diseases such as asthma, metabolic disorders including diabetes and obesity and their antimicrobial properties have been investigated in several studies. Table 1 provides a detailed summary of studies where the role of probiotic EVs in pathophysiology and disease alleviation has been suggested. IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease; EVs: extracellular vesicles; HIV: human immunodeficiency virus.