fig2

Figure 2. Mechanisms of uptake of bacterial extracellular vesicles by human (host) cells. BEVs enter human cells by macropinocytosis/phagocytosis, clathrin- and caveolin-mediated endocytosis, lipid rafts, and direct fusion with the plasma membrane. ER: endoplasmic reticulum; MVB: multivesicular bodies; GL: glycolipid; GPI: GPI-anchored proteins; PL: phospholipid; RTK: receptor tyrosine kinases; SL: sphingolipid. Created with BioRender.com.