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![Neuroinflammation in cortical and meningeal pathology in multiple sclerosis: understanding from animal models](https://image.oaes.cc/8c5d9f7c-47a7-46b8-beed-5d4135591b78/3767.fig.1.jpg)
Figure 1. Schematic representation of cortical damage and meningeal inflammation in animal models. The meninges contain the cerebrospinal fluid, which includes T cells and B cells. Meningeal inflammation can appear either diffuse or forming follicle-like structures, which are associated with B cells. The animal models are mostly based on peripheral immunization with MOG or PLP peptides, which activate the innate and adaptive immune response, coupled with the intracortical injection of a cocktail of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IFN-γ). Also, cortical damage can be developed by a single injection of IL-1β into the cortex. The peripheral immune cells cross the blood brain barrier into the central nervous system. Activated microglia and astroglia, induced by the pro-inflammatory environment within the cortex, induce demyelination and neurodegeneration. HN: healthy neuron; RA: resting astrocyte; RM: resting microglia; Tc: T cells; Bc: B cells; FLS: follicle-like structures; BBB: blood brain barrier; AM: activated microglia; AA: activated astroglia; DN: neurodegeneration; MOG: myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein; PLP: proteolipid protein