REFERENCES
1. Borlongan CV, Burns J, Tajiri N, Stahl CE, Weinbren NL, Shojo H, Sanberg PR, Emerich DF, Kaneko Y, van Loveren HR. Epidemiological survey-based formulae to approximate incidence and prevalence of neurological disorders in the United States: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 2013;8:e78490.
2. Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, Arnett DK, Blaha MJ, Cushman M, de Ferranti S, Després JP, Fullerton HJ, Howard VJ, Huffman MD, Judd SE, Kissela BM, Lackland DT, Lichtman JH, Lisabeth LD, Liu S, Mackey RH, Matchar DB, McGuire DK, Mohler ER 3rd, Moy CS, Muntner P, Mussolino ME, Nasir K, Neumar RW, Nichol G, Palaniappan L, Pandey DK, Reeves MJ, Rodriguez CJ, Sorlie PD, Stein J, Towfighi A, Turan TN, Virani SS, Willey JZ, Woo D, Yeh RW, Turner MB; American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics -- 2015 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015;131:e29-322.
3. Acosta SA, Tajiri N, de la Pena I, Bastawrous M, Sanberg PR, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Alpha-synuclein as a pathological link between chronic traumatic brain injury and Parkinson's disease. J Cell Physiol 2015;230:1024-32.
4. Acosta SA, Tajiri N, Hoover J, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Intravenous bone marrow stem cell grafts preferentially migrate to spleen and abrogate chronic inflammation in stroke. Stroke 2015;46:2616-27.
5. Giunta B, Obregon D, Velisetty R, Sanberg PR, Borlongan CV, Tan J. The immunology of traumatic brain injury: a prime target for Alzheimer's disease prevention. J Neuroinflammation 2012;9:185.
6. Hernandez-Ontiveros DG, Tajiri N, Acosta S, Giunta B, Tan J, Borlongan CV. Microglia activation as a biomarker for traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 2013;4:30.
7. Borlongan CV, Glover LE, Sanberg PR, Hess DC. Permeating the blood brain barrier and abrogating the inflammation in stroke: implications for stroke therapy. Curr Pharm Des 2012;18:3670-6.
8. Ziv Y, Ron N, Butovsky O, Landa G, Sudai E, Greenberg N, Cohen H, Kipnis J, Schwartz M. Immune cells contribute to the maintenance of neurogenesis and spatial learning abilities in adulthood. Nat Neurosci 2006;9:268-75.
9. Lambertsen KL, Biber K, Finsen B. Inflammatory cytokines in experimental and human stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2012;32:1677-98.
10. Beschorner R, Schluesener HJ, Gözalan F, Meyermann R, Schwab JM. Infiltrating CD14+ monocytes and expression of CD14 by activated parenchymal microglia/macrophages contribute to the pool of CD14+ cells in ischemic brain lesions. J Neuroimmunol 2002;126:107-15.
11. Lozano D, Gonzales-Portillo GS, Acosta S, de la Pena I, Tajiri N, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Neuroinflammatory responses to traumatic brain injury: etiology, clinical consequences, and therapeutic opportunities. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015;11:97-106.
12. Acosta SA, Tajiri N, Shinozuka K, Ishikawa H, Grimmig B, Diamond DM, Sanberg PR, Bickford PC, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Long-term upregulation of inflammation and suppression of cell proliferation in the brain of adult rats exposed to traumatic brain injury using the controlled cortical impact model. PLoS One 2013;8:e53376.
13. Jin R, Yang G, Li G. Inflammatory mechanisms in ischemic stroke: role of inflammatory cells. J Leukoc Biol 2010;87:779-89.
15. Ortega SB, Noorbhai I, Poinsatte K, Kong X, Anderson A, Monson NL, Stowe AM. Stroke induces a rapid adaptive autoimmune response to novel neuronal antigens. Discov Med 2015;19:381-92.
16. Dela Peña I, Sanberg PR, Acosta S, Tajiri N, Lin SZ, Borlongan CV. Stem cells and G-CSF for treating neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury: aging as a comorbidity factor. J Neurosurg Sci 2014;58:145-9.
18. Bazarian JJ, Cernak I, Noble-Haeusslein L, Potolicchio S, Temkin N. Long-term neurologic outcomes after traumatic brain injury. J Head Trauma Rehabil 2009;24:439-51.
19. Uryu K, Chen XH, Martinez D, Browne KD, Johnson VE, Graham DI, Lee VM, Trojanowski JQ, Smith DH. Multiple proteins implicated in neurodegenerative diseases accumulate in axons after brain trauma in humans. Exp Neurol 2007;208:185-92.
20. Stefanis L. α-Synuclein in Parkinson's disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2012;2:a009399.
21. Su E, Bell MJ, Wisniewski SR, Adelson PD, Janesko-Feldman KL, Salonia R, Clark RS, Kochanek PM, Kagan VE, Bayır H. α-Synuclein levels are elevated in cerebrospinal fluid following traumatic brain injury in infants and children: the effect of therapeutic hypothermia. Dev Neurosci 2010;32:385-95.
22. Hawthorne AL, Popovich PG. Emerging concepts in myeloid cell biology after spinal cord injury. Neurotherapeutics 2011;8:252-61.
23. Ajmo CT Jr, Vernon DO, Collier L, Hall AA, Garbuzova-Davis S, Willing A, Pennypacker KR. The spleen contributes to stroke-induced neurodegeneration. J Neurosci Res 2008;86:2227-34.
24. Belinga VF, Wu GJ, Yan FL, Limbenga EA. Splenectomy following MCAO inhibits the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway and protects the brain from neurodegeneration in rats. J Neuroimmunol 2016;293:105-13.
25. Chu W, Li M, Li F, Hu R, Chen Z, Lin J, Feng H. Immediate splenectomy down-regulates the MAPK-NF-κB signaling pathway in rat brain after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2013;74:1446-53.
26. Seifert HA, Leonardo CC, Hall AA, Rowe DD, Collier LA, Benkovic SA, Willing AE, Pennypacker KR. The spleen contributes to stroke induced neurodegeneration through interferon gamma signaling. Metab Brain Dis 2012;27:131-41.
27. Das M, Leonardo CC, Rangooni S, Pennypacker KR, Mohapatra S, Mohapatra SS. Lateral fluid percussion injury of the brain induces CCL20 inflammatory chemokine expression in rats. J Neuroinflammation 2011;8:148.
28. Das M, Mohapatra S, Mohapatra SS. New perspectives on central and peripheral immune responses to acute traumatic brain injury. J Neuroinflammation 2012;9:236.
29. Ransohoff RM, Brown MA. Innate immunity in the central nervous system. J Clin Invest 2012;122:1164-71.
30. Shinozuka K, Dailey T, Tajiri N, Ishikawa H, Kim DW, Pabon M, Acosta S, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Stem cells for neurovascular repair in stroke. J Stem Cell Res Ther 2013;4:12912.
31. Hawkins RA, O'Kane RL, Simpson IA, Viña JR. Structure of the blood-brain barrier and its role in the transport of amino acids. J Nutr 2006;136:S218-26.
32. Town T, Nikolic V, Tan J. The microglial "activation" continuum: from innate to adaptive responses. J Neuroinflammation 2005;2:24.
33. Shaked I, Tchoresh D, Gersner R, Meiri G, Mordechai S, Xiao X, Hart RP, Schwartz M. Protective autoimmunity: interferon-gamma enables microglia to remove glutamate without evoking inflammatory mediators. J Neurochem 2005;92:997-1009.
34. van Landeghem FK, Stover JF, Bechmann I, Brück W, Unterberg A, Bührer C, von Deimling A. Early expression of glutamate transporter proteins in ramified microglia after controlled cortical impact injury in the rat. Glia 2001;35:167-79.
35. Williams K, Bar-Or A, Ulvestad E, Olivier A, Antel JP, Yong VW. Biology of adult human microglia in culture: comparisons with peripheral blood monocytes and astrocytes. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1992;51:538-49.
36. Acosta SA, Diamond DM, Wolfe S, Tajiri N, Shinozuka K, Ishikawa H, Hernandez DG, Sanberg PR, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Influence of post-traumatic stress disorder on neuroinflammation and cell proliferation in a rat model of traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2013;8:e81585.
37. Acosta SA, Tajiri N, Shinozuka K, Ishikawa H, Sanberg PR, Sanchez-Ramos J, Song S, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV. Combination therapy of human umbilical cord blood cells and granulocyte colony stimulating factor reduces histopathological and motor impairments in an experimental model of chronic traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2014;9:e90953.
38. Tajiri N, Acosta SA, Shahaduzzaman M, Ishikawa H, Shinozuka K, Pabon M, Hernandez-Ontiveros D, Kim DW, Metcalf C, Staples M, Dailey T, Vasconcellos J, Franyuti G, Gould L, Patel N, Cooper D, Kaneko Y, Borlongan CV, Bickford PC. Intravenous transplants of human adipose-derived stem cell protect the brain from traumatic brain injury-induced neurodegeneration and motor and cognitive impairments: cell graft biodistribution and soluble factors in young and aged rats. J Neurosci 2014;34:313-26.
39. Tajiri N, Kellogg SL, Shimizu T, Arendash GW, Borlongan CV. Traumatic brain injury precipitates cognitive impairment and extracellular Aβ aggregation in Alzheimer's disease transgenic mice. PLoS One 2013;8:e78851.
40. Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, McLellan DR. Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology 1989;15:49-59.
41. Frei K, Siepl C, Groscurth P, Bodmer S, Schwerdel C, Fontana A. Antigen presentation and tumor cytotoxicity by interferon-gamma-treated microglial cells. Eur J Immunol 1987;17:1271-8.
42. Panek RB, Benveniste EN. Class II MHC gene expression in microglia. Regulation by the cytokines IFN-gamma, TNF-alpha, and TGF-beta. J Immunol 1995;154:2846-54.
43. Suzumura A, Mezitis SG, Gonatas NK, Silberberg DH. MHC antigen expression on bulk isolated macrophage-microglia from newborn mouse brain: induction of Ia antigen expression by gamma-interferon. J Neuroimmunol 1987;15:263-78.
44. Walker DG, Kim SU, McGeer PL. Complement and cytokine gene expression in cultured microglial derived from postmortem human brains. J Neurosci Res 1995;40:478-93.
45. Bramlett HM, Dietrich WD. Long-term consequences of traumatic brain injury: current status of potential mechanisms of injury and neurological outcomes. J Neurotrauma 2015;32:1834-48.
46. Glover LE, Tajiri N, Lau T, Kaneko Y, van Loveren H, Borlongan CV. Immediate, but not delayed, microsurgical skull reconstruction exacerbates brain damage in experimental traumatic brain injury model. PLoS One 2012;7:e33646.
47. Loane DJ, Faden AI. Neuroprotection for traumatic brain injury: translational challenges and emerging therapeutic strategies. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2010;31:596-604.
48. Schmidt OI, Heyde CE, Ertel W, Stahel PF. Closed head injury -- an inflammatory disease? Brain Res Rev 2005;48:388-99.
49. Shahaduzzaman M, Acosta S, Bickford PC, Borlongan CV. α-Synuclein is a pathological link and therapeutic target for Parkinson's disease and traumatic brain injury. Med Hypotheses 2013;81:675-80.
50. Yu S, Kaneko Y, Bae E, Stahl CE, Wang Y, van Loveren H, Sanberg PR, Borlongan CV. Severity of controlled cortical impact traumatic brain injury in rats and mice dictates degree of behavioral deficits. Brain Res 2009;1287:157-63.
51. Dasuri K, Zhang L, Keller JN. Oxidative stress, neurodegeneration, and the balance of protein degradation and protein synthesis. Free Radic Biol Med 2013;62:170-85.
52. Rojanathammanee L, Floden AM, Manocha GD, Combs CK. Attenuation of microglial activation in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease via NFAT inhibition. J Neuroinflammation 2015;12:42.
53. Nagamoto-Combs K, Combs CK. Microglial phenotype is regulated by activity of the transcription factor, NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells). J Neurosci 2010;30:9641-6.
54. Smith DH, Chen XH, Pierce JE, Wolf JA, Trojanowski JQ, Graham DI, McIntosh TK. Progressive atrophy and neuron death for one year following brain trauma in the rat. J Neurotrauma 1997;14:715-27.
55. Ramlackhansingh AF, Brooks DJ, Greenwood RJ, Bose SK, Turkheimer FE, Kinnunen KM, Gentleman S, Heckemann RA, Gunanayagam K, Gelosa G, Sharp DJ. Inflammation after trauma: microglial activation and traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol 2011;70:374-83.
56. Toubai T, Mathewson ND, Magenau J, Reddy P. Danger signals and graft-versus-host disease: current understanding and future perspectives. Front Immunol 2016;7:539.
57. Fluiter K, Opperhuizen AL, Morgan BP, Baas F, Ramaglia V. Inhibition of the membrane attack complex of the complement system reduces secondary neuroaxonal loss and promotes neurologic recovery after traumatic brain injury in mice. J Immunol 2014;192:2339-48.
58. Bellander BM, Singhrao SK, Ohlsson M, Mattsson P, Svensson M. Complement activation in the human brain after traumatic head injury. J Neurotrauma 2001;18:1295-311.
59. Utagawa A, Truettner JS, Dietrich WD, Bramlett HM. Systemic inflammation exacerbates behavioral and histopathological consequences of isolated traumatic brain injury in rats. Exp Neurol 2008;211:283-91.
60. DiPiro JT, Howdieshell TR, Goddard JK, Callaway DB, Hamilton RG, Mansberger AR Jr. Association of interleukin-4 plasma levels with traumatic injury and clinical course. Arch Surg 1995;130:1159-62.
61. Marcu AC, Paccione KE, Barbee RW, Diegelmann RF, Ivatury RR, Ward KR, Loria RM. Androstenetriol immunomodulation improves survival in a severe trauma hemorrhage shock model. J Trauma 2007;63:662-9.
63. Schwab JM, Zhang Y, Kopp MA, Brommer B, Popovich PG. The paradox of chronic neuroinflammation, systemic immune suppression, autoimmunity after traumatic chronic spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2014;258:121-9.
64. Reboldi A, Coisne C, Baumjohann D, Benvenuto F, Bottinelli D, Lira S, Uccelli A, Lanzavecchia A, Engelhardt B, Sallusto F. C-C chemokine receptor 6-regulated entry of TH-17 cells into the CNS through the choroid plexus is required for the initiation of EAE. Nat Immunol 2009;10:514-23.
65. Meares GP, Ma X, Qin H, Benveniste EN. Regulation of CCL20 expression in astrocytes by IL-6 and IL-17. Glia 2012;60:771-81.
66. Nguyen TV, Frye JB, Zbesko JC, Stepanovic K, Hayes M, Urzua A, Serrano G, Beach TG, Doyle KP. Multiplex immunoassay characterization and species comparison of inflammation in acute and non-acute ischemic infarcts in human and mouse brain tissue. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2016;4:100.
67. Campbell SJ, Zahid I, Losey P, Law S, Jiang Y, Bilgen M, van Rooijen N, Morsali D, Davis AE, Anthony DC. Liver Kupffer cells control the magnitude of the inflammatory response in the injured brain and spinal cord. Neuropharmacology 2008;55:780-7.
68. Kim E, Yang J, Beltran CD, Cho S. Role of spleen-derived monocytes/macrophages in acute ischemic brain injury. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014;34:1411-9.
70. Swirski FK, Nahrendorf M, Etzrodt M, Wildgruber M, Cortez-Retamozo V, Panizzi P, Figueiredo JL, Kohler RH, Chudnovskiy A, Waterman P, Aikawa E, Mempel TR, Libby P, Weissleder R, Pittet MJ. Identification of splenic reservoir monocytes and their deployment to inflammatory sites. Science 2009;325:612-6.
71. Rasouli J, Lekhraj R, Ozbalik M, Lalezari P, Casper D. Brain-spleen inflammatory coupling: a literature review. Einstein J Biol Med 2011;27:74-77.
72. Jin X, Ishii H, Bai Z, Itokazu T, Yamashita T. Temporal changes in cell marker expression and cellular infiltration in a controlled cortical impact model in adult male C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One 2012;7:e41892.
73. Ajmo CT Jr, Collier LA, Leonardo CC, Hall AA, Green SM, Womble TA, Cuevas J, Willing AE, Pennypacker KR. Blockade of adrenoreceptors inhibits the splenic response to stroke. Exp Neurol 2009;218:47-55.
74. Li M, Li F, Luo C, Shan Y, Zhang L, Qian Z, Zhu G, Lin J, Feng H. Immediate splenectomy decreases mortality and improves cognitive function of rats after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma 2011;71:141-7.
75. Rogausch H, Del Rey A, Kabiersch A, Besedovsky HO. Interleukin-1 increases splenic blood flow by affecting the sympathetic vasoconstrictor tonus. Am J Physiol 1995;268:R902-8.
76. Yuan XQ, Wade CE, Prough DS, DeWitt DS. Traumatic brain injury creates biphasic systemic hemodynamic and organ blood flow responses in rats. J Neurotrauma 1990;7:141-53.
77. Grisanti LA, Perez DM, Porter JE. Modulation of immune cell function by α(1)-adrenergic receptor activation. Curr Top Membr 2011;67:113-38.
79. Wang JW, Wang HD, Cong ZX, Zhou XM, Xu JG, Jia Y, Ding Y. Puerarin ameliorates oxidative stress in a rodent model of traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res 2014;186:328-37.